# std/math

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Source Edit

Constructive mathematics is naturally typed. -- Simon Thompson

Basic math routines for Nim.

Note that the trigonometric functions naturally operate on radians. The helper functions degToRad and radToDeg provide conversion between radians and degrees.

Example:

    import std/math
    from std/fenv import epsilon
    from std/random import rand

    proc generateGaussianNoise(mu: float = 0.0, sigma: float = 1.0): (float, float) =
      # Generates values from a normal distribution.
      # Translated from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Muller_transform#Implementation.
      var u1: float
      var u2: float
      while true:
        u1 = rand(1.0)
        u2 = rand(1.0)
        if u1 > epsilon(float): break
      let mag = sigma * sqrt(-2 * ln(u1))
      let z0 = mag * cos(2 * PI * u2) + mu
      let z1 = mag * sin(2 * PI * u2) + mu
      (z0, z1)

    echo generateGaussianNoise()

This module is available for the JavaScript target.

# See also

- complex module for complex numbers and their mathematical operations
- rationals module for rational numbers and their mathematical operations
- fenv module for handling of floating-point rounding and exceptions (overflow, zero-divide, etc.)
- random module for a fast and tiny random number generator
- stats module for statistical analysis
- strformat module for formatting floats for printing
- system module for some very basic and trivial math operators (`shr`, `shl`, `xor`, `clamp`, etc.)

this func uses bitwise comparisons from C compilers, which are not always available.

# Imports

since, bitops, fenv, countbits_impl

# Types

    FloatClass = enum
      fcNormal,                 ## value is an ordinary nonzero floating point value
      fcSubnormal,              ## value is a subnormal (a very small) floating point value
      fcZero,                   ## value is zero
      fcNegZero,                ## value is the negative zero
      fcNan,                    ## value is Not a Number (NaN)
      fcInf,                    ## value is positive infinity
      fcNegInf                   ## value is negative infinity

  Describes the class a floating point value belongs to. This is the type that is returned by the classify func. Source Edit

# Consts

    E = 2.718281828459045

  Euler's number. Source Edit

    MaxFloat32Precision = 8

  Maximum number of meaningful digits after the decimal point for Nim's `float32` type. Source Edit

    MaxFloat64Precision = 16

  Maximum number of meaningful digits after the decimal point for Nim's `float64` type. Source Edit

    MaxFloatPrecision = 16

  Maximum number of meaningful digits after the decimal point for Nim's `float` type. Source Edit

    MinFloatNormal = 2.225073858507201e-308

  Smallest normal number for Nim's `float` type (= 2^-1022). Source Edit

    PI = 3.141592653589793

  The circle constant PI (Ludolph's number). Source Edit

    TAU = 6.283185307179586

  The circle constant TAU (= 2 * PI). Source Edit

# Procs

    func `^`[T: SomeNumber; U: SomeFloat](x: T; y: U): float

  Computes `x` to the power of `y`.

  Error handling follows the C++ specification even for the JS backend https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/numeric/math/pow

  See also:

  - ^ func
  - pow func for `float32` or `float64` output
  - sqrt func
  - cbrt func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(5.5 ^ 2.2, 42.540042248725975)
      doAssert 1.0 ^ Inf == 1.0

  Source Edit

    func `^`[T: SomeNumber](x: T; y: Natural): T

  Computes `x` to the power of `y`.

  The exponent `y` must be non-negative, use pow for negative exponents.

  See also:

  - ^ func for negative exponent or floats
  - pow func for `float32` or `float64` output
  - sqrt func
  - cbrt func

  Example:

      doAssert -3 ^ 0 == 1
      doAssert -3 ^ 1 == -3
      doAssert -3 ^ 2 == 9

  Source Edit

    func almostEqual[T: SomeFloat](x, y: T; unitsInLastPlace: Natural = 4): bool {.
        inline.}

  Checks if two float values are almost equal, using the machine epsilon.

  `unitsInLastPlace` is the max number of units in the last place difference tolerated when comparing two numbers. The larger the value, the more error is allowed. A `0` value means that two numbers must be exactly the same to be considered equal.

  The machine epsilon has to be scaled to the magnitude of the values used and multiplied by the desired precision in ULPs unless the difference is subnormal.

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(PI, 3.14159265358979)
      doAssert almostEqual(Inf, Inf)
      doAssert not almostEqual(NaN, NaN)

  Source Edit

    func arccos(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "acosf", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arccos(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "acos", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the arc cosine of `x`.

  See also:

  - cos func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(arccos(0.0)), 90.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(arccos(1.0)), 0.0)

  Source Edit

    func arccosh(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "acoshf", header: "<math.h>",
                                        ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arccosh(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "acosh", header: "<math.h>",
                                        ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the inverse hyperbolic cosine of `x`.

  See also:

  - cosh func
  Source Edit

    func arccot[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the inverse cotangent of `x` (`arctan(1/x)`). Source Edit

    func arccoth[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the inverse hyperbolic cotangent of `x` (`arctanh(1/x)`). Source Edit

    func arccsc[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the inverse cosecant of `x` (`arcsin(1/x)`). Source Edit

    func arccsch[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the inverse hyperbolic cosecant of `x` (`arcsinh(1/x)`). Source Edit

    func arcsec[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the inverse secant of `x` (`arccos(1/x)`). Source Edit

    func arcsech[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the inverse hyperbolic secant of `x` (`arccosh(1/x)`). Source Edit

    func arcsin(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "asinf", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arcsin(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "asin", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the arc sine of `x`.

  See also:

  - sin func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(arcsin(0.0)), 0.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(arcsin(1.0)), 90.0)

  Source Edit

    func arcsinh(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "asinhf", header: "<math.h>",
                                        ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arcsinh(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "asinh", header: "<math.h>",
                                        ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the inverse hyperbolic sine of `x`.

  See also:

  - sinh func
  Source Edit

    func arctan(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "atanf", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arctan(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "atan", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Calculate the arc tangent of `x`.

  See also:

  - arctan2 func
  - tan func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(arctan(1.0), 0.7853981633974483)
      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(arctan(1.0)), 45.0)

  Source Edit

    func arctan2(y, x: float32): float32 {.importc: "atan2f", header: "<math.h>",
                                           ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arctan2(y, x: float64): float64 {.importc: "atan2", header: "<math.h>",
                                           ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Calculate the arc tangent of `y/x`.

  It produces correct results even when the resulting angle is near `PI/2` or `-PI/2` (`x` near 0).

  See also:

  - arctan func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(arctan2(1.0, 0.0), PI / 2.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(arctan2(1.0, 0.0)), 90.0)

  Source Edit

    func arctanh(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "atanhf", header: "<math.h>",
                                        ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func arctanh(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "atanh", header: "<math.h>",
                                        ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the inverse hyperbolic tangent of `x`.

  See also:

  - tanh func
  Source Edit

    func binom(n, k: int): int {....raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the binomial coefficient.

  Example:

      doAssert binom(6, 2) == 15
      doAssert binom(-6, 2) == 1
      doAssert binom(6, 0) == 1

  Source Edit

    func cbrt(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "cbrtf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func cbrt(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "cbrt", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the cube root of `x`.

  See also:

  - sqrt func for the square root

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(cbrt(8.0), 2.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(cbrt(2.197), 1.3)
      doAssert almostEqual(cbrt(-27.0), -3.0)

  Source Edit

    func ceil(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "ceilf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func ceil(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "ceil", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the ceiling function (i.e. the smallest integer not smaller than `x`).

  See also:

  - floor func
  - round func
  - trunc func

  Example:

      doAssert ceil(2.1)  == 3.0
      doAssert ceil(2.9)  == 3.0
      doAssert ceil(-2.1) == -2.0

  Source Edit

    func ceilDiv[T: SomeInteger](x, y: T): T {.inline.}

  Ceil division is conceptually defined as `ceil(x / y)`.

  Assumes `x >= 0` and `y > 0` (and `x + y - 1 <= high(T)` if T is SomeUnsignedInt).

  This is different from the system.div operator, which works like `trunc(x / y)`. That is, `div` rounds towards `0` and `ceilDiv` rounds up.

  This function has the above input limitation, because that allows the compiler to generate faster code and it is rarely used with negative values or unsigned integers close to `high(T)/2`. If you need a `ceilDiv` that works with any input, see: https://github.com/demotomohiro/divmath.

  See also:

  - system.div proc for integer division
  - floorDiv func for integer division which rounds down.

  Example:

      assert ceilDiv(12, 3) ==  4
      assert ceilDiv(13, 3) ==  5

  Source Edit

    func clamp[T](val: T; bounds: Slice[T]): T {.inline.}

  Like `system.clamp`, but takes a slice, so you can easily clamp within a range.

  Example:

      assert clamp(10, 1 .. 5) == 5
      assert clamp(1, 1 .. 3) == 1
      type A = enum a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5
      assert a1.clamp(a2..a4) == a2
      assert clamp((3, 0), (1, 0) .. (2, 9)) == (2, 9)
      doAssertRaises(AssertionDefect): discard clamp(1, 3..2) # invalid bounds

  Source Edit

    func classify(x: float): FloatClass {....raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Classifies a floating point value.

  Returns `x`'s class as specified by the FloatClass enum.

  Example:

      doAssert classify(0.3) == fcNormal
      doAssert classify(0.0) == fcZero
      doAssert classify(0.3 / 0.0) == fcInf
      doAssert classify(-0.3 / 0.0) == fcNegInf
      doAssert classify(5.0e-324) == fcSubnormal

  Source Edit

    func copySign[T: SomeFloat](x, y: T): T {.inline.}

  Returns a value with the magnitude of `x` and the sign of `y`; this works even if x or y are NaN, infinity or zero, all of which can carry a sign.

  Example:

      doAssert copySign(10.0, 1.0) == 10.0
      doAssert copySign(10.0, -1.0) == -10.0
      doAssert copySign(-Inf, -0.0) == -Inf
      doAssert copySign(NaN, 1.0).isNaN
      doAssert copySign(1.0, copySign(NaN, -1.0)) == -1.0

  Source Edit

    func cos(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "cosf", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func cos(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "cos", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the cosine of `x`.

  See also:

  - arccos func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(cos(2 * PI), 1.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(cos(degToRad(60.0)), 0.5)

  Source Edit

    func cosh(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "coshf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func cosh(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "cosh", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the hyperbolic cosine of `x`.

  See also:

  - arccosh func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(cosh(0.0), 1.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(cosh(1.0), 1.543080634815244)

  Source Edit

    func cot[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the cotangent of `x` (`1/tan(x)`). Source Edit

    func coth[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the hyperbolic cotangent of `x` (`1/tanh(x)`). Source Edit

    func csc[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the cosecant of `x` (`1/sin(x)`). Source Edit

    func csch[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the hyperbolic cosecant of `x` (`1/sinh(x)`). Source Edit

    func cumprod[T](x: var openArray[T])

  Transforms `x` in-place (must be declared as `var`) into its product.

  See also:

  - prod proc
  - cumproded proc for a version which returns cumproded sequence

  Example:

      var a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
      cumprod(a)
      doAssert a == @[1, 2, 6, 24]

  Source Edit

    func cumproded[T](x: openArray[T]): seq[T]

  Return cumulative (aka prefix) product of `x`.

  See also:

  - prod proc
  - cumprod proc for the in-place version

  Example:

      let a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
      doAssert cumproded(a) == @[1, 2, 6, 24]

  Source Edit

    func cumsum[T](x: var openArray[T])

  Transforms `x` in-place (must be declared as `var`) into its cumulative (aka prefix) summation.

  See also:

  - sum func
  - cumsummed func for a version which returns a cumsummed sequence

  Example:

      var a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
      cumsum(a)
      doAssert a == @[1, 3, 6, 10]

  Source Edit

    func cumsummed[T](x: openArray[T]): seq[T]

  Returns the cumulative (aka prefix) summation of `x`.

  If `x` is empty, `@[]` is returned.

  See also:

  - sum func
  - cumsum func for the in-place version

  Example:

      doAssert cumsummed([1, 2, 3, 4]) == @[1, 3, 6, 10]

  Source Edit

    func degToRad[T: float32 | float64](d: T): T {.inline.}

  Converts from degrees to radians.

  See also:

  - radToDeg func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(degToRad(180.0), PI)

  Source Edit

    func divmod[T: SomeInteger](x, y: T): (T, T) {.inline.}

  Specialized instructions for computing both division and modulus. Return structure is: (quotient, remainder)

  Example:

      doAssert divmod(5, 2) == (2, 1)
      doAssert divmod(5, -3) == (-1, 2)

  Source Edit

    func erf(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "erff", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func erf(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "erf", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the error function for `x`.

  Note: Not available for the JS backend.

  Source Edit

    func erfc(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "erfcf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func erfc(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "erfc", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the complementary error function for `x`.

  Note: Not available for the JS backend.

  Source Edit

    func euclDiv[T: SomeInteger](x, y: T): T

  Returns euclidean division of `x` by `y`.

  Example:

      doAssert euclDiv(13, 3) == 4
      doAssert euclDiv(-13, 3) == -5
      doAssert euclDiv(13, -3) == -4
      doAssert euclDiv(-13, -3) == 5

  Source Edit

    func euclMod[T: SomeNumber](x, y: T): T

  Returns euclidean modulo of `x` by `y`. `euclMod(x, y)` is non-negative.

  Example:

      doAssert euclMod(13, 3) == 1
      doAssert euclMod(-13, 3) == 2
      doAssert euclMod(13, -3) == 1
      doAssert euclMod(-13, -3) == 2

  Source Edit

    func exp(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "expf", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func exp(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "exp", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the exponential function of `x` (`e^x`).

  See also:

  - ln func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(exp(1.0), E)
      doAssert almostEqual(ln(exp(4.0)), 4.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(exp(0.0), 1.0)

  Source Edit

    func fac(n: int): int {....raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the factorial of a non-negative integer `n`.

  See also:

  - prod func

  Example:

      doAssert fac(0) == 1
      doAssert fac(4) == 24
      doAssert fac(10) == 3628800

  Source Edit

    func floor(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "floorf", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func floor(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "floor", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the floor function (i.e. the largest integer not greater than `x`).

  See also:

  - ceil func
  - round func
  - trunc func

  Example:

      doAssert floor(2.1)  == 2.0
      doAssert floor(2.9)  == 2.0
      doAssert floor(-3.5) == -4.0

  Source Edit

    func floorDiv[T: SomeInteger](x, y: T): T

  Floor division is conceptually defined as `floor(x / y)`.

  This is different from the system.div operator, which is defined as `trunc(x / y)`. That is, `div` rounds towards `0` and `floorDiv` rounds down.

  See also:

  - system.div proc for integer division
  - floorMod func for Python-like (`%` operator) behavior

  Example:

      doAssert floorDiv( 13,  3) ==  4
      doAssert floorDiv(-13,  3) == -5
      doAssert floorDiv( 13, -3) == -5
      doAssert floorDiv(-13, -3) ==  4

  Source Edit

    func floorMod[T: SomeNumber](x, y: T): T

  Floor modulo is conceptually defined as `x - (floorDiv(x, y) * y)`.

  This func behaves the same as the `%` operator in Python.

  See also:

  - mod func
  - floorDiv func

  Example:

      doAssert floorMod( 13,  3) ==  1
      doAssert floorMod(-13,  3) ==  2
      doAssert floorMod( 13, -3) == -2
      doAssert floorMod(-13, -3) == -1

  Source Edit

    func frexp[T: float32 | float64](x: T): tuple[frac: T, exp: int] {.inline.}

  Splits `x` into a normalized fraction `frac` and an integral power of 2 `exp`, such that `abs(frac) in 0.5..<1` and `x == frac * 2 ^ exp`, except for special cases shown below.

  Example:

      doAssert frexp(8.0) == (0.5, 4)
      doAssert frexp(-8.0) == (-0.5, 4)
      doAssert frexp(0.0) == (0.0, 0)

      # special cases:
      when sizeof(int) == 8:
        doAssert frexp(-0.0).frac.signbit # signbit preserved for +-0
        doAssert frexp(Inf).frac == Inf # +- Inf preserved
        doAssert frexp(NaN).frac.isNaN

  Source Edit

    func frexp[T: float32 | float64](x: T; exponent: var int): T {.inline.}

  Overload of `frexp` that calls `(result, exponent) = frexp(x)`.

  Example:

      var x: int
      doAssert frexp(5.0, x) == 0.625
      doAssert x == 3

  Source Edit

    func gamma(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "tgammaf", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func gamma(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "tgamma", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the gamma function for `x`.

  Note: Not available for the JS backend.

  See also:

  - lgamma func for the natural logarithm of the gamma function

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(gamma(1.0), 1.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(gamma(4.0), 6.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(gamma(11.0), 3628800.0)

  Source Edit

    func gcd(x, y: SomeInteger): SomeInteger

  Computes the greatest common (positive) divisor of `x` and `y`, using the binary GCD (aka Stein's) algorithm.

  See also:

  - gcd func for a float version
  - lcm func

  Example:

      doAssert gcd(12, 8) == 4
      doAssert gcd(17, 63) == 1

  Source Edit

    func gcd[T](x, y: T): T

  Computes the greatest common (positive) divisor of `x` and `y`.

  Note that for floats, the result cannot always be interpreted as "greatest decimal `z` such that `z*N == x and z*M == y` where N and M are positive integers".

  See also:

  - gcd func for an integer version
  - lcm func

  Example:

      doAssert gcd(13.5, 9.0) == 4.5

  Source Edit

    func gcd[T](x: openArray[T]): T

  Computes the greatest common (positive) divisor of the elements of `x`.

  See also:

  - gcd func for a version with two arguments

  Example:

      doAssert gcd(@[13.5, 9.0]) == 4.5

  Source Edit

    func hypot(x, y: float32): float32 {.importc: "hypotf", header: "<math.h>",
                                         ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func hypot(x, y: float64): float64 {.importc: "hypot", header: "<math.h>",
                                         ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angle triangle with `x` as its base and `y` as its height. Equivalent to `sqrt(x*x + y*y)`.

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(hypot(3.0, 4.0), 5.0)

  Source Edit

    func isNaN(x: SomeFloat): bool {.inline.}

  Returns whether `x` is a `NaN`, more efficiently than via `classify(x) == fcNan`. Works even with `--passc:-ffast-math`.

  Example:

      doAssert NaN.isNaN
      doAssert not Inf.isNaN
      doAssert not isNaN(3.1415926)

  Source Edit

    func isPowerOfTwo(x: int): bool {....raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Returns `true`, if `x` is a power of two, `false` otherwise.

  Zero and negative numbers are not a power of two.

  See also:

  - nextPowerOfTwo func

  Example:

      doAssert isPowerOfTwo(16)
      doAssert not isPowerOfTwo(5)
      doAssert not isPowerOfTwo(0)
      doAssert not isPowerOfTwo(-16)

  Source Edit

    func lcm[T](x, y: T): T

  Computes the least common multiple of `x` and `y`.

  See also:

  - gcd func

  Example:

      doAssert lcm(24, 30) == 120
      doAssert lcm(13, 39) == 39

  Source Edit

    func lcm[T](x: openArray[T]): T

  Computes the least common multiple of the elements of `x`.

  See also:

  - lcm func for a version with two arguments

  Example:

      doAssert lcm(@[24, 30]) == 120

  Source Edit

    func lgamma(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "lgammaf", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func lgamma(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "lgamma", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the natural logarithm of the gamma function for `x`.

  Note: Not available for the JS backend.

  See also:

  - gamma func for gamma function
  Source Edit

    func ln(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "logf", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                   tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func ln(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "log", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                   tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the natural logarithm of `x`.

  See also:

  - log func
  - log10 func
  - log2 func
  - exp func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(ln(exp(4.0)), 4.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(ln(1.0), 0.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(ln(0.0), -Inf)
      doAssert ln(-7.0).isNaN

  Source Edit

    func log[T: SomeFloat](x, base: T): T

  Computes the logarithm of `x` to base `base`.

  See also:

  - ln func
  - log10 func
  - log2 func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(log(9.0, 3.0), 2.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(log(0.0, 2.0), -Inf)
      doAssert log(-7.0, 4.0).isNaN
      doAssert log(8.0, -2.0).isNaN

  Source Edit

    func log2(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "log2f", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func log2(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "log2", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the binary logarithm (base 2) of `x`.

  See also:

  - log func
  - log10 func
  - ln func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(log2(8.0), 3.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(log2(1.0), 0.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(log2(0.0), -Inf)
      doAssert log2(-2.0).isNaN

  Source Edit

    func log10(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "log10f", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func log10(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "log10", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the common logarithm (base 10) of `x`.

  See also:

  - ln func
  - log func
  - log2 func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(log10(100.0) , 2.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(log10(0.0), -Inf)
      doAssert log10(-100.0).isNaN

  Source Edit

    func `mod`(x, y: float32): float32 {.importc: "fmodf", header: "<math.h>",
                                         ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func `mod`(x, y: float64): float64 {.importc: "fmod", header: "<math.h>",
                                         ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the modulo operation for float values (the remainder of `x` divided by `y`).

  See also:

  - floorMod func for Python-like (`%` operator) behavior

  Example:

      doAssert  6.5 mod  2.5 ==  1.5
      doAssert -6.5 mod  2.5 == -1.5
      doAssert  6.5 mod -2.5 ==  1.5
      doAssert -6.5 mod -2.5 == -1.5

  Source Edit

    func nextPowerOfTwo(x: int): int {....raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Returns `x` rounded up to the nearest power of two.

  Zero and negative numbers get rounded up to 1.

  See also:

  - isPowerOfTwo func

  Example:

      doAssert nextPowerOfTwo(16) == 16
      doAssert nextPowerOfTwo(5) == 8
      doAssert nextPowerOfTwo(0) == 1
      doAssert nextPowerOfTwo(-16) == 1

  Source Edit

    func pow(x, y: float32): float32 {.importc: "powf", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func pow(x, y: float64): float64 {.importc: "pow", header: "<math.h>",
                                       ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes `x` raised to the power of `y`.

  You may use the ^ func instead.

  See also:

  - ^ (SomeNumber, Natural) func
  - ^ (SomeNumber, SomeFloat) func
  - sqrt func
  - cbrt func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(pow(100, 1.5), 1000.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(pow(16.0, 0.5), 4.0)

  Source Edit

    func prod[T](x: openArray[T]): T

  Computes the product of the elements in `x`.

  If `x` is empty, 1 is returned.

  See also:

  - sum func
  - fac func

  Example:

      doAssert prod([1, 2, 3, 4]) == 24
      doAssert prod([-4, 3, 5]) == -60

  Source Edit

    func radToDeg[T: float32 | float64](d: T): T {.inline.}

  Converts from radians to degrees.

  See also:

  - degToRad func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(radToDeg(2 * PI), 360.0)

  Source Edit

    func round(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "roundf", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func round(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "round", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Rounds a float to zero decimal places.

  Used internally by the round func when the specified number of places is 0.

  See also:

  - round func for rounding to the specific number of decimal places
  - floor func
  - ceil func
  - trunc func

  Example:

      doAssert round(3.4) == 3.0
      doAssert round(3.5) == 4.0
      doAssert round(4.5) == 5.0

  Source Edit

    func round[T: float32 | float64](x: T; places: int): T

  Decimal rounding on a binary floating point number.

  This function is NOT reliable. Floating point numbers cannot hold non integer decimals precisely. If `places` is 0 (or omitted), round to the nearest integral value following normal mathematical rounding rules (e.g. `round(54.5) -> 55.0`). If `places` is greater than 0, round to the given number of decimal places, e.g. `round(54.346, 2) -> 54.350000000000001421…`. If `places` is negative, round to the left of the decimal place, e.g. `round(537.345, -1) -> 540.0`.

  Example:

      doAssert round(PI, 2) == 3.14
      doAssert round(PI, 4) == 3.1416

  Source Edit

    func sec[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the secant of `x` (`1/cos(x)`). Source Edit

    func sech[T: float32 | float64](x: T): T

  Computes the hyperbolic secant of `x` (`1/cosh(x)`). Source Edit

    func sgn[T: SomeNumber](x: T): int {.inline.}

  Sign function.

  Returns:

  - `-1` for negative numbers and `NegInf`,
  - `1` for positive numbers and `Inf`,
  - `0` for positive zero, negative zero and `NaN`

  Example:

      doAssert sgn(5) == 1
      doAssert sgn(0) == 0
      doAssert sgn(-4.1) == -1

  Source Edit

    proc signbit(x: SomeFloat): bool {.inline.}

  Returns true if `x` is negative, false otherwise.

  Example:

      doAssert not signbit(0.0)
      doAssert signbit(-0.0)
      doAssert signbit(-0.1)
      doAssert not signbit(0.1)

  Source Edit

    func sin(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "sinf", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func sin(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "sin", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the sine of `x`.

  See also:

  - arcsin func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(sin(PI / 6), 0.5)
      doAssert almostEqual(sin(degToRad(90.0)), 1.0)

  Source Edit

    func sinh(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "sinhf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func sinh(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "sinh", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the hyperbolic sine of `x`.

  See also:

  - arcsinh func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(sinh(0.0), 0.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(sinh(1.0), 1.175201193643801)

  Source Edit

    func splitDecimal[T: float32 | float64](x: T): tuple[intpart: T, floatpart: T]

  Breaks `x` into an integer and a fractional part.

  Returns a tuple containing `intpart` and `floatpart`, representing the integer part and the fractional part, respectively.

  Both parts have the same sign as `x`. Analogous to the `modf` function in C.

  Example:

      doAssert splitDecimal(5.25) == (intpart: 5.0, floatpart: 0.25)
      doAssert splitDecimal(-2.73) == (intpart: -2.0, floatpart: -0.73)

  Source Edit

    func sqrt(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "sqrtf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func sqrt(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "sqrt", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the square root of `x`.

  See also:

  - cbrt func for the cube root

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(sqrt(4.0), 2.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(sqrt(1.44), 1.2)

  Source Edit

    func sum[T](x: openArray[T]): T

  Computes the sum of the elements in `x`.

  If `x` is empty, 0 is returned.

  See also:

  - prod func
  - cumsum func
  - cumsummed func

  Example:

      doAssert sum([1, 2, 3, 4]) == 10
      doAssert sum([-4, 3, 5]) == 4

  Source Edit

    func tan(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "tanf", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func tan(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "tan", header: "<math.h>", ...raises: [],
                                    tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the tangent of `x`.

  See also:

  - arctan func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(tan(degToRad(45.0)), 1.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(tan(PI / 4), 1.0)

  Source Edit

    func tanh(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "tanhf", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func tanh(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "tanh", header: "<math.h>",
                                     ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Computes the hyperbolic tangent of `x`.

  See also:

  - arctanh func

  Example:

      doAssert almostEqual(tanh(0.0), 0.0)
      doAssert almostEqual(tanh(1.0), 0.7615941559557649)

  Source Edit

    func trunc(x: float32): float32 {.importc: "truncf", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Source Edit

    func trunc(x: float64): float64 {.importc: "trunc", header: "<math.h>",
                                      ...raises: [], tags: [], forbids: [].}

  Truncates `x` to the decimal point.

  See also:

  - floor func
  - ceil func
  - round func

  Example:

      doAssert trunc(PI) == 3.0
      doAssert trunc(-1.85) == -1.0

  Source Edit